1944 World War II is going on throughout Europe and Phillippines;
D-Day landing of U.S. and allied troops at Normandy; United
Nations is established; D.H. Lawrence's Lady Chatterly's 
Lover
found obscene in U.S. Broadway: Harvey, I Remember Mama Films:
Double Indemnity, Gaslight Music: Swing is in vogue - Benny
Goodman, Glenn Miller, Woody Herman, Tommy Dorsey Art: Edward
Hopper, Clyfford Still Fiction: John Hershey's A Bell for
Adano Poetry: Pulitzer to Karl Shapiro's V- Letter and Other
Poems Kenneth Rexroth engineers Berkeley Renaissance with
William Everson, Philip Lamantia, Robert Duncan... Circle
magazine around West Coast Anarchist and Libertarian Circles
around Berkeley. European Surrealists in New York City during
the war meet with American artists and writers. First meeting
of Jack Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg, William S. Burroughs and
Herbert Huncke in New York City, around Columbia University
and Times Square. Kerouac marries Edie Parker while held in
jail as a material witness in friend Lucien Carr's murder
trial (marriage lasts a few months). Kerouac and Burroughs
write novel together "And the Hippos were Boiled in their
Tanks."
1945 Harry Truman takes over presidency after death of Franklin
D. Roosevelt; end of WW II- first atom bomb is dropped on
Hiroshima, Japan (189,000 casualties), then Nagasaki. Broadway:
Tennessee Williams' The Glass Menagerie and He Touched Me
Films: The Lost Weekend, Mildred Pierce, The Body Snatcher
Music: Be-Bop jazz evolves with Dizzy Gillespie and Charlie
Parker. Art: Abstract Expressionist art is thriving throughout
the Beat Era with such artists as Jackson Pollock, Mark Tobey,
William de Kooning, Mark Rothko, Robert Motherwell, Franz
Kline, Jasper Johns, many of whom gathered in the Greenwich
Village scene with writers. At Columbia University, Allen
Ginsberg is expelled for harboring Jack Kerouac in his room
and for writing offensive protest words on his dormitory-room
window. 1946 First U.N. General Assembly Meeting in London;
national strikes in coal, railroad, General Electric industries.
Post-War Baby Boom (birth rate in U.S. increases by 20%);
Dr. Benjamin Spock's The Common Sense Book of Baby and Child
Care is published; advent of television use of commercial
jet airlines; popularization of Jean Paul Sartre's existentialism.
German Nazi's are sentenced to death at Nuremburg trials.
Broadway: O'Neil's The Iceman Cometh, Hellman's Another Part
of the Forest, and Born Yesterday Films: The Best Years of
Our Lives treating dissatisfied war veterans wins Academy
Award as best picture. Bogart in The Big Sleep Fiction: Carson
McCullers' A Member of the Wedding, Camus' The Stranger, Robert
Penn Warren's All the King's Men Poetry: Pulitzer to Robert
Lowell's Lord Weary's Castle William S. Burroughs and common-law
wife Joan Vollmer move to Texas with their daughter; Neal
Cassady meets Kerouac and Ginsberg in New York City; Kerouac
begins writing The Town and the City after the death of his
father. 1947 House : Un-American Activities Committee begins
hearings on Hollywood communists; college enrollment reaches
all time high of 67.1 million. Broadway: Tennessee Williams'
A Streetcar Named Desire Film: Gentleman's Agreement Miracle
on 34th Street Music: Top jazz performances by Benny Goodman
and Duke Ellington Band, Nat King Cole, Frank Sinatra Fiction:
Schulberg's The Harder They Fall, Michener's Tales of the
South Pacific Poetry: Pulitzer Prize to W.H. Auden's Age of
Anxiety. Ginsberg, Kerouac, and Cassady live in Denver for
summer; Cassady meets future wife Carolyn Robinson; Ginsberg
and Cassady visit Burroughs in Texas.
1948 Truman is elected president; Mahatma Gandhi is assassinated
by Hindu extremists in India; 12 Communist leaders are indicted
for Smith Act Violation; publication of Alfred Kinsey's Sexual
Behavior in the Human Male. Broadway: Mr. Roberts, Anne of
the Thousand Days Films: The Red Shoes, Key Largo, Sorry,
Wrong Number Televison: Popular programs: "Douglas Edwards
and the News," "Candid Camera," "Arthur Godfrey's Talent Scouts,"
"Milton Berle Show," "Studio One," "Philco Television Playhouse"
Music: Stan Kenton appears at Hollywood Bowl Art: Andrew Wyeth,
Ben Shahn, Arshile Gorky Fiction-The Plague by Albert Camus,
The Naked and the Dead by Norman Mailer. John Clellon Holmes
meets Kerouac and Ginsberg in New York City around Columbia
University where Ginsberg has re-enrolled and graduates. Ginsberg
begins his series of William Blake visions. Kerouac and Cassady
take first on the road trip together. 1949 North Atlantic
Pact is signed, NATO is created; Apartheid begins in South
Africa; 500,000 steelworkers strike; minimum wage rises from
40 cents to 75 cents an hour; fear of Cold War with Communist
China and Russia grows. Broadway: Death of a Salesman by Arthur
Miller Films: Pinky, Home of the Brave, Sands of Iwo Jima
Television: "The Goldbergs," "Captain Video and the Video
Rangers" "Mama" Music: "Cool Jazz" of Mile Davis, Jerry Mulligan,
Dave Brubeck; Billie Eckstine is popular singer Fiction: Nelson
Algren's The Man with the Golden Arm, George Orwell's 1984
Ginsberg is arrested in NYC for harboring stolen goods from
Huncke and sent to New York State Psychiatric Institute for
8 months where he meets Carl Solomon, fellow patient and hero
of "Howl" poem. Ginsberg visits William Carlos Williams. Burroughs
in Mexico City. 1950 Korean Police Action involvement, UN
forces to be lead by General MacArthur; Senator Joeseph McCarthy
charges Communist infiltration of State Department. Broadway:
Come Back, Little Sheba, The Cocktail Party Films: All about
Eve, The Asphalt Jungle Sunset Boulevard Television: "You
Bet Your Life"(Groucho Marx), "Your Hit Parade" Music: Big
Bands giving way to smaller groups-George Shearing, Count
Basie. Fiction: Faulkner's Collected Stories, Bradbury's The
Martian Chronicles Poetry: Pulitzer to Carl Sandburg's Complete
Poems; books by Howard Nemerov, Delmore Schwartz, William
Carlos Williams' Collecter Later Poems Lawrence Ferlinghetti,
then Kenneth Patchen move to San Francisco; Gary Snyder, Lew
Welch, and Philip Whalen at Reed College in Portland, Oregon;
Rexroth conducting weekly soiree in San Francisco home; KPFA,
Pacifica Foundation, first public radio, in Berkeley; Burroughs
is writing novel Junkie. Kerouac's The Town & the City (Harcourt,
Brace) treats life in working class Lowell, Mass. and New
York City.
He marries Joan Haverty for six months; travels to Denver
then to Mexico to visit with Cassady to visit Burroughs. 1951
Korean War involvement; draft age lowered to 18; U.S. conducting
tests of A-Bomb; suspected Russian spies the Rosenbergs are
found guilty of treason and 
sentenced
to death. Broadway: The Rose Tattoo, The Moon Is Blue Films:
An American in Paris, A Place in the Sun Television: "Your
Show of Shows" with Sid Caesar and Imogene Coca; Kefauver
crime hearings. Music: Jazz figures: Charlie Parker, Sonny
Rollins, Maynard Ferguson Fiction: J.D. Salinger's The Catcher
in the Rye. Poetry: Pulitzer to Marianne Moore's Collected
Poems; books by Adrienne Rich, Randall Jarrell, Theodore Roethke
Ginsberg and Kerouac meet Gregory Corso in New York City;
Kerouac writes initial draft of On the Road in three weeks,
becomes interested in Buddhism; Burroughs accidentally shoots
and kills his wife, Joan. 1952 Truman orders seizure of U.S.
Steel mills to avert strike (later ruled as unconstitutional);
Eisenhower elected president of U.S. with Richard Nixon as
V.P.; subversives are barred from teaching school in U.S.;
England has A-Bomb and new Queen, Elizabeth II. Broadway:
The Seven Year Itch Films: High Noon, Viva Zapata!, Come Back,
Little Sheba;first Cinemascope and Cinerama films Television:
"The Jackie Gleason Show," "Ernie Kovacs Show" Music: Louis
Armstrong tours Europe with his All Stars Fiction: Pulitzer
to Hemingway's The Old Man and the Sea, Ralph Ellison's Invisible
Man, Steinbeck's East of Eden Poetry: Pulitzer to Archibald
MacLeish's Collected Poems 1917-1952; Dylan Thomas doing U.S.
reading tour - NYC, San Francisco, etc. Kerouac completes
Visions of Cody, lives with Neal and Carolyn Cassady in San
Francisco, writes Dr. Sax while living with Burroughs in Mexico,
visited by Cassady. Go first Beat Generation novel by John
Clellon Holmes who writes "This Is the Beat Generation" for
New York Times; germination of New York Poets group-Frank
O'Hara, Kenneth Koch, James Schuyler, Barbara Guest. 1953
Death of Stalin; Health, Education, and Welfare Department
is created; Rosenbergs are executed as spies; Charlie Chaplin
leaves U.S. complaining of persecution by "vicious propaganda";
Screen Actors Guild adopts by-law banning Communists. Broadway:
The Crucible, Picnic, Camino Real Films: From Here to Eternity,
The Big Heat Music: Vocalists-Ella Fitzgerald, Nat "King"
Cole, Four Freshmen Fiction: James Baldwin's Go Tell It on
the Mountain, Saul Bellows' The Adventures of Augie March
Poetry: Pulitzer to Theodore Roethke for The Waking; books
by Richard Eberhart, May Sarton Gary Snyder working at Sourdough
Mountain meets Kenneth Rexroth, then enters Berkeley as a
graduate student; City Lights Bookstore founded by Ferlinghetti
and Peter Martin, begins publishing City Lights Magazine;Burroughs'
novel Junkie is published by Ace Books; Kerouac writes Maggie
Cassidy and The Subterraneans in NYC where he reunites with
Burroughs and Ginsberg who are editing their correspondence
as The Yage Letters.
1954 Joseph McCarthy probe of the Army for Communists begins,
finally results in disputes, Edward R. Morrow's expose of
McCarthy on"See It Now," and Senate condemnation of McCarthy
methods; Supreme Court rules racial segregation in public
schools unconstitutional Broadway: The Bad Seed, Witness for
the Prosecution, Films: On the Waterfront, The Caine Mutiny,
The Wild One Fiction: Golding's Lord of the Flies Television:
Army-McCarthy hearings, "Davey Crockett" episodes on "Disneyland"
program; "I Love Lucy" Radio: Popular disc jockey Alan Freed
coins term for new music as "rock 'n' roll" Allen Ginsberg
arrives in San Francisco, working in market research, meets
Peter Orlovsky; North Beach bohemian scene at cafe's, bars,
jazz clubs- - includes writers Jack Spicer, Richard Brautigan,
Bob Kaufman, John Weiners, Bay Area Poets Coalition; Weldon
Kees and Dick Martin organize first SF Poets Follies; Black
Mountain College fosters projective verse through poets Charles
Olson, Robert Creeley, Robert Duncan, Denise Levertov, Paul
Blackburn, et al. 1955 Nikita Krushchev becomes Soviet Party
Secretary; Congress authorizes U.S. president to use force
to defend Formosa; Richard J. Daley elected mayor of Chicago;
Martin Luther King Jr. leads Civil Rights Movement; rebel
actor James Dean (24) dies in auto crash Broadway: Cat on
a Hot Tin Roof, Bus Stop, The Diary of Anne Frank, A View
from the Bridge Films: Rebel without a Cause, The Blackboard
Jungle, Marty, The Rose Tattoo Televison: first presidential
press conference is broadcast; "64,000 Question" Art: "Pop
Art" of Robert Rauschenberg, Andy Warhol, et al-Morris Graves,
Jasper Johns, Larry Rivers Fiction: McCarthy's A Charmed Life,
Mailer's The Deer Park Poetry: Pulitzer to Elizabeth Bishop's
Poems: North and South- - A Cold Spring Ginsberg organizes
Six Gallery Reading in San Francisco garage- gallery, featuring:
Rexroth as MC, poets: Philip Lamantia, Michael McClure, Philip
Whalen, Gary Snyder and Ginsberg's own reading of Howl, Kerouac
cheering them on (Oct. 13); McClure completes studies at San
Francisco State College; Ferlinghetti launches City Lights
Books with Pocket Poets Series: #1, his own Pictures of a
Gone World, #2 Rexroth's 30 Spanish Poems, Patchen's Poems
of Humor and Protest; Kerouac writes Mexico City Blues, befriends
Gary Snyder at Berkeley, who is translating Chinese poetry
of Zen poet Han- Shan; he and Kerouac go mountain climbing,
discuss Buddhism; Kerouac returns briefly to North Carolina,
writes "Jazz of the Beat Generation" for New World Writing;
Corso's The Vestal Lady on Brattle is published with support
of friends at Harvard.
1956 11 Blacks are arrested during Montgomery Bus Boycott;
Krushchev threatens that Russia will produce ICBM missile;
anti-soviet demonstrations in Poland and Hungary are met with
troops in Hungary; Egypt and Israel clash over Gaza Strip;
Steel Strike lasts 33 days; accidental sinking of "Andrea
Dorea" ship; Salk vaccine for polio menengitis is distributed;
Eisenhower wins landslide election, Richard Nixon as V.P.;
marriage of Marilyn Monroe and Arthur Miller, Grace Kelley
and Prince Ranier of Monaco Broadway: Beckett's Waiting for
Godot with Bert Lahr and E.G. Marshall; Chayefsky's Middle
of the Night Films: Giant, Lust for Life, The Ten Commandments,
Baby Doll, The Seventh Seal Television: Elvis Presley's appearance
on Ed Sullivan Show starts protest; daytime soap operas; late
night Steve Allen Show; "Playhouse 90" produces "Requiem for
a Heavy-weight"; "Alfred Hitchcock Presents" Music: Harry
Belafonte prompts interest in Calypso music; Rockabilly and
Rhythm and Blues merge in Rock 'n' Roll; Art: Georgia O'Keefe
and Helen Frankenthaler shows Fiction: Bellow's Seize the
Day, Algren's A Walk on the Wild Side, Baldwin's Giovanni's
Room Poetry: Pulitzer Richard Wilbur's Things of This World;
books by John Berryman, Marianne Moore, Donald Hall Ginsberg's
Howl and Other Poems City Lights' Pocket Poets Series #4;
Kerouac living with Snyder in Marin County cabin, spends summer
as lokout on Desolation Peak, Washington; Snyder leaves for
Japan; Kerouac leaves for Mexico City, joined by Ginsberg,
Corso, and Orlovsky; Kerouac is writing Visions of Gerard,
Desolation Angels, and The Dharma Bums; Ginsberg returns to
New York City, visits William Carlos Williams; his mother
dies; Michael McClure and James Harmon edit Ark II-Moby I
which blends work of Beats and Black Mountain poets with Buddhist
thought; San Francisco Poetry Center directed by Ruth Dewitt
features readings by Robert Duncan, Kenneth Rexroth, et al.
1957 Eisenhower Doctrine is adopted to help Mid-East countries;
Ike proposes two year test ban of nuclear weapons; Russia
launches "Sputnik," first space satelite; Teamster president
Dave Beck is ousted for corruption, Jimmy Hoffa is elected;
Billy Graham draws 92,000 to Yankee Stadium Broadway: The
Dark at the Top of the Stairs, Compulsion, Look Back in Anger
Films: The Bridge on the River Kwai, Twelve Angry Men, Peyton
Place, A Face in the Crowd Televison: Mike Wallace Interviews,
"Maverick," "American Bandstand," "Gunsmoke" Music: "Third
Stream" combination of Jazz with classical European music
as in Modern Jazz Quartet; in reaction Charlie Mingus fosters
open and improvisational forms Art: Picasso exhibit in NY,
Chicago, Philadelphia Fiction: Malamud's The Assistant, Morris's
Love among the Cannibals; Durrell's Justine; James Agee's
A Death in the Family (Pulitzer) Poetry: Pulitzer to Robert
Penn Warren's Promises; books by James Wright, Denise Levertov,
Nellie Sachs U.S. Customs seizes Howl in San Francisco; Ferlinghetti
and Shig Murao stand trial; Ginsberg is in Europe at the time;
Kerouac's On the Road is published by Viking through help
of Malcolm Cowley-receives strong NYTimes review, becomes
a best seller; Kerouac visits Burroughs in Tangier, helps
with Naked Lunch manuscript; Kerouac and mother travel to
San Francisco, tries to settle there, meets Philip Whalen
and Neal Cassady; love affair in New York with Joyce Glassman
(Johnson); Norman Mailer writes "The White Negro" essay on
hipsters and Beats; Frank O'Hara's Meditations in an Emergency
poems published by Grove; Poetry-and-Jazz scene begins in
San Francisco with Rexroth and Ferlinghetti performing at
The Cellar, Kenneth Patchen and Chamber Jazz Sextet at The
Blackhawk; Evergreen Review editors Barney Rossett and Donald
Allen do special focus on Beats in "San Francisco Poets"
Vol. 2 1958 Strategic Air Command is formed; U.S. and USSR
begin cultural exchanges; V.P. Nixon is stoned in Caracas
while on Goodwill tour; Russian Sputnik III orbits Earth,
brings on U.S. study of "Crisis in Education" in U.S.; conflicts
in Beruit, Algeria, Hungary, China; Fidel Castro rebels seize
capital in Cuba; John Kenneth Galbraith's The Affluent Society
portrays materialism and conformity of U.S., argues for fair
distribution of wealth to end poverty. Beat Generation art
and lifestyle has cultural impact. Broadway: MacLeish's J.B.,
O'Neil's A Touch of the Poet, Films: The Defiant Ones, Some
Came Running, The Young Lions Televison: "Naked City," "Peter
Gunn," "The Rifleman"; David Susskind's "Open End" Music:
Kingston Trio help launch new Folk Music; first Monterey Jazz
Festival; Duke Elington plays Carnegie Hall; Fiction: Capote's
Breakfast at Tiffany's, Barth's The End of the Road Poetry:
Pulitzer to Stanley Kunitz' Selected Poems, 1928-1958;books
by Muriel Rukeyser, William Meredith, W.C. Williams' Patterson,
Book V Lenny Bruce is performing at S.F. Hungry I, along with
Beat comics Lord Buckley, Lou Gottlieb; Burroughs moves to
Paris, London, Tangier (1958-1966); Cassady serves two year
jail term in San Quentin for possession and sale of marijuana;
Kerouac moves to Long Island with mother, publishes The Subterraneans
and The Dharma Bums, begins work on Lonesome Traveler; Ferlinghetti's
A Coney Island of the Mind (New Directions); Corso's broadside
"Bomb" and book Gasoline (City Lights); Snyder returns to
San Francisco, stays at East-West House with Lew Welch, Joanne
Kyger, and others studying Zen; Snyder's "Cold Mountain Poems"
of Han-Shan published in Evergreen Review; LeRoi and Hettie
Jones begin to publish Yugen and Totem Press; Alan Watts's
essay "Beat Zen, Square Zen, and Zen" appears in Chicago Review.
1959 Castro takes Havanna, Batista flees; Pope John calls
for Ecumenical Council; Khrushchev threatens U.S. with military
superiority; Ike's call for on-site missile inspection is
rejected; Laos asks for U.S. aid against North Vietnam; Ike
and Khrushchev meet at Camp David. Broadway: Loraine Hansberry's
A Raisin in the Sun; Gibson's The Miracle Worker, Paddy Chayefsky's
The Tenth Man Films: Room at the Top, Suddenly, Last Summer,
On the Beach Television: Top Quiz Shows exposed as pretense;
"The Many Loves of Dobey Gillis" includes Beatnik Maynard
G. Krebs; "The Twilight Zone," "The Late Show" Music: Ornette
Coleman's The Shape of Jazz to Come, Miles Davis and John
Coltrane create "free jazz"; Rock 'n' Roll receives wide acceptance
despite some protests of its moral corruption Fiction: Roth's
Goodbye Columbus and Five Short Stories,Kurt Vonnegut Jr.'s
The Sirens of Titan, Leon Uris' Exodus; Allen Drury's Advise
and Consent wins Pulitzer; Poetry: Pulitzer to William Snodgrass'
Heart's Needle; books by Robert Duncan, James Wright, Robert
Lowell Beatitude magazine edited by Bob Kaufmann, Ferlinghetti,
et al; Rexroth turns on Beats, attacks them as pretenders;
after Chicago Review is censored,Big Tablepublishes Burroughs'
"Ten Episodes from Naked Lunch"; then book Naked Lunch is
published by Olympia Press of Paris; Gary Snyder and Joanne
Kyger marry in Japan in order to live together in Zen monastery;
his Riprap is published by Origin Press; Philip Whalen publishes
Self-Portrait from Another Direction (Auerhahn Press); Beat
film Pull My Daisy is produced and directed by Robert Frank
and Alfred Leslie, with Kerouac's narration and Ginsberg,
Peter Orlovsky, and Corso; New Cinema follows Beat parallels
of spontaneity and realism, example John Cassavetes' Shadows;
Lew Welch meets Kerouac in S.F. and drives him to New York;
Kerouac's Dr. Sax, Maggie Cassady and Mexico City Blues are
published; Ginsberg records his Howl for Fantasy Records and
is writing Kaddish. Articles on "The Beats" begin to appear
in Time, Life, and in Lawrence Lipton's critical The Holy
Barbarians; Michael McClure's Hymns to St. Geryon (Auerhahn);
McClure directs production of his play The Feast! using beastial
language and performed by Bay area poets and artists; Philip
Lamantia's Ekstasis & Narcotica (Auerhahn); David Meltzer's
Ragas; he and wife Christina are performing with folk music
in S.F.; Ferlinghetti's "Tentative Descripion of a Dinner
to Promote the Impeachment of President Eisenhower" read at
Berkeley and receives cool response from some Beats as too
politically involved-Ferlingheti responds with quotes from
Sartre on the need for engagement, concludes "Only the dead
are disengaged." Ferlinghetti and Ginsberg travel to Chile
for South American Conference of Leftist writing; Ferlinghetti's
surrealist novel Her (New Directions) 1960 Blacks sit-in at
Greensboro, North Carolina lunch counter; Russians and Fidel
Castro sign economic agreement; U-2 reconnaissance jet is
shot down by Russia; anti-U.S. demonstrations in Japan; Kennedy
wins narrow election victory as president; Democrats sweep
Congress. Broadway: Lillian Hellman's Toys in the Attic; Jean
Anouilh's Becket; An Evening with Mike Nichols and Elaine
May Films: The Apartment, Psycho, Never on a Sunday, Spartacus
Television: Route 66, The Flintstones, Face the Nation, The
Bob Newhart Show Music: Dave Brubeck's Time Out, John Coltrane's
Meditations Fiction: William Styron's Set this House on Fire,
John Updike's Rabbit, Run, Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird
Poetry: books by James Dickey, Kenneth Koch, W.S. Merwin,
Anne Sexton, Charles Olson, Denise Levertov Donald Allen publishes
New American Poets anthology featuring many of the Beats;
Burroughs begins using cut-up techniques in 
Minutes
to Go and Exterminator;
Kerouac tries futiley to write at Ferlinghetti's cabin in
Bixby Canyon at Big Sur, makes friendships with Lew Welch
and Leonore Kandel, Philip Whalen, and Ferlinghetti; Ginsberg
in South America, at Harvard takes LSD with Timothy Leary,
Proliferation of Beat writings: Snyder's Riprap and Myths
and Tests (Totem/Corinth); Corso's The Happy Birthday of Death
(New Directions); Whalen's Like I Say; (Totem/Corinth); Jack
Spicer's After Lorca Poems; Philip Lamantia's Exstasis & Narcotica;
writings about the Beats: Rexroth's Bird in the Hand: Essays;
Elias Wilentz's The Beat Scene (Corinth); Thomas Parkinson
prepares A Casebook on the Beat (Crowell); Seymour Krim's
The Beats (Fawcett). Sources: The Beat Story American Chronicle:
Six Decades in American Life 1920-1980, eds. Lois Gordon and
Alan Gordon (N.Y.: Atheneum, 1987). A Dictionary of Literary
Biography Vol. 16 The Beats: Literary Bohemians in Postwar
America, ed. Ann Charters (Detroit, Michigan: Gale Research
Co. 1983). Gifford, Barry and Lawrence Lee. Jack's Book: An
Oral Biography of Jack Kerouac (N.Y. : Penguin, 1978). Literary
San Francisco: A Pictorial History from Its Beginnings to
the Present Day, eds. Lawrence Ferlinghetti and Nancy J. Peters
(San Francisco: City Lights, 1980). McClure, Michael. Scratching
the Beat Surface (San Francisco: North Point Press, 1982).
The New America Poetry, ed. Donald Allen (N.Y.: Grove, 1960).
The Portable Beat Reader, ed. Ann Charters (N.Y.: Penguin,
1992). Smith, Larry. Lawrence Ferlinghetti: Poet-at-Large
(Carbondale, Ill. Southern Illinois University Press, 1983.)
